A Metaheuristic Machine Learning Approach for Darknet Traffic Classification
Keywords:
Darknet Traffic Classification, Deep Learning, Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs), Harris Hawks Optimization (HHO), Feature Selection, Classification AccuracyAbstract
The expansion of darknet traffic categorization necessitates recognizing and resolving its intricate nature. Conventional categorization methods often prove inadequate when confronted with the complexities inherent in darknet network data. This study presents a novel methodology that combines Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs) with the Harris Hawks Optimization (HHO) method. This research thoroughly evaluated the classifier to enhance classification accuracy and address the prevailing classier in darknet datasets. The study results indicate that incorporating HHO led to a significant increase in precision, with a spike of 99.90%. Additionally, the recall metric showed notable improvement, reaching a value of 0.9998. Moreover, the balanced accuracy measure also shows a substantial enhancement. The usefulness of the combination of Recurrent Neural Networks (RNN) and Hybrid Harmony Optimization (HHO) is shown by this significant advancement. This innovation offers a possible answer to the issue of categorizing darknet data.
References
S. Abbas, G. A. Sampedro, M. Abisado, A. Almadhor, I. Yousaf, and S.-P. Hong, “Harris-hawk-optimization-based deep recurrent neural network for securing the Internet of medical things,” Electronics, vol. 12, no. 12, pp. 2612, 2023, https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics12122612.
Q. Abu Al-Haija, M. Krichen, and W. Abu Elhaija, “Machine-learning-based Darknet traffic detection system for IOT applications,” Electronics, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 556, 2022, https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11040556.
M. Alimoradi, M. Zabihimayvan, A. Daliri, R. Sledzik, and R. Sadeghi, “Deep neural classification of darknet traffic,” Artificial Intelligence Research and Development, pp. 105-114, 2022, https://doi.org/10.3233/FAIA220323.
S. Arisdakessian, O. A. Wahab, A. Mourad, H. Otrok, and M. Guizani, “A survey on IOT intrusion detection: Federated learning, game theory, social psychology, and explainable AI as future directions,” IEEE Internet of Things Journal, vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 4059-4092, 2023, https://doi.org/10.1109/JIOT.2022.3203249.
K. Bansal and A. Singhrova, “Review on intrusion detection system for IOT/IIOT - brief study,” Multimedia Tools and Applications, vol. 83, pp. 23083–23108, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-023-16395-6.
L. Chang, T. Lee, H. Chu, and C. Su, “Application-based online traffic classification with deep learning models on SDN networks,” Advances in Technology Innovation, vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 216–229, 2020. https://doi.org/10.46604/aiti.2020.4286.
H. Chen, A. A. Heidari, H. Chen, M. Wang, Z. Pan, and A. H. Gandomi, “Multi-population differential evolution-assisted Harris Hawks Optimization: Framework and case studies,” Future Generation Computer Systems, vol. 111, pp. 175-198, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.future.2020.04.008.
L. Chen, N. Song, and Y. Ma, “Harris Hawks optimization based on global cross-variation and tent mapping,” The Journal of Supercomputing, vol. 79, no. 5, pp. 5576-5614, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11227-022-04869-7.
R. Dangi and P. Lalwani, “Harris Hawks optimization based hybrid deep learning model for efficient network slicing in 5G network,” Cluster Computing, vol. 27, pp. 395–409, 2024. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11227-022-04869-7.
S. Dargan, M. Kumar, M. R. Ayyagari, and G. Kumar, “A survey of deep learning and its applications: A new paradigm to machine learning,” Archives of Computational Methods in Engineering, vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 1071-1092, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11831-019-09344-w.
S. Davis and B. Arrigo, “The dark web and anonymizing technologies: Legal pitfalls, ethical prospects, and policy directions from radical criminology,” Crime, Law and Social Change, vol. 76, no. 4, pp. 367-386, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-021-09972-z.
C. Fachkha and M. Debbabi, “Darknet as a source of cyber intelligence: Survey, taxonomy, and characterization,” IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 1197-1227, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1109/COMST.2015.2497690.
J. Gu, Z. Wang, J. Kuen, L. Ma, A. Shahroudy, B. Shuai, T. Liu, X. Wang, G. Wang, J. Cai, and T. Chen, “Recent advances in convolutional neural networks,” Pattern Recognition, vol. 77, pp. 354-377, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.patcog.2017.10.013.
A. Heidari, N. Jafari Navimipour, M. Unal, and G. Zhang, “Machine learning applications in internet-of-drones: Systematic review, recent deployments, and open issues,” ACM Computing Surveys, vol. 55, no. 12, pp. 1-45, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1145/3571728.
X. Hu, L. Chu, J. Pei, W. Liu, and J. Bian, “Model complexity of deep learning: A survey,” Knowledge and Information Systems, vol. 63, no. 10, pp. 2585-2619, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10115-021-01605-0.
A. Jenefa, “The ascent of network traffic classification in the dark net: a survey,” Journal of Intelligent & Fuzzy Systems, vol. 45, no. 3, pp. 3679-3700, 2023. https://doi.org/10.3233/JIFS-231099.
M. Kahng, P. Y. Andrews, A. Kalro, and D. H. Chau, “Activis: Visual exploration of industry-scale deep neural network models,” IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 88-97, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1109/TVCG.2017.2744718.
H. Kang, R. Liu, Y. Yao, and F. Yu, “Improved Harris Hawks optimization for non-convex function optimization and design optimization problems,” Mathematics and Computers in Simulation, vol. 204, pp. 619-639, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matcom.2022.09.010.
M. A. Khan, M. Sharif, T. Akram, M. Raza, T. Saba, and A. Rehman, “Hand-crafted and deep convolutional neural network features fusion and selection strategy: An application to intelligent human action recognition,” Applied Soft Computing, vol. 87, p. 105986, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asoc.2019.105986.
Q. Liu, M. Li, N. Cao, Z. Zhang, and G. Yang, “Improved Harris combined with clustering algorithm for data traffic classification,” IEEE Access, vol. 10, pp. 72815-72824, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2022.3188866.
J. Mazel, P. Casas, R. Fontugne, K. Fukuda, and P. Owezarski, “Hunting attacks in the dark: Clustering and correlation analysis for unsupervised anomaly detection,” International Journal of Network Management, vol. 25, no. 5, pp. 283-305, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1002/nem.1903.
M. Murty, H. Rana, R. Verma, R. Pathak, and P. H. Rughani, “Building an AI/ML based classification framework for Dark Web text data,” Proceedings of the International Conference on Computing and Communication Networks, 2022, pp. 93-111. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0604-6_9.
R. Niranjana, V. A. Kumar, and S. Sheen, “Darknet traffic analysis and classification using numerical AGM and mean shift clustering algorithm,” SN Computer Science, vol. 1, no. 1, article 16, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42979-019-0016-x.
P. Pham, L. T. T. Nguyen, W. Pedrycz, and B. Vo, “Deep learning, graph-based text representation and classification: a survey, perspectives and challenges,” Artificial Intelligence Review, vol. 56, pp. 4893–4927, 2023, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10462-022-10265-7
P. Pham, L. T. Nguyen, W. Pedrycz, and B. Vo, “Deep learning, graph-based text representation and classification: A survey, perspectives and challenges,” Artificial Intelligence Review, vol. 56, no. 6, pp. 4893-4927, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10462-022-10265-7.
S. Pouyanfar, S. Sadiq, Y. Yan, H. Tian, Y. Tao, M. P. Reyes, M.-L. Shyu, S.-C. Chen, and S. S. Iyengar, “A survey on deep learning,” ACM Computing Surveys, vol. 51, no. 5, pp. 1-36, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1145/3234150.
A. Pramod, H. S. Naicker, and A. K. Tyagi, “Machine learning and deep learning: Open issues and future research directions for the next 10 years,” Computational Analysis and Deep Learning for Medical Care, pp. 463-490, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119785750.ch18 Available at: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119785750.ch18.
D. B. Rawat, R. Doku, and M. Garuba, “Cybersecurity in big data era: From securing big data to data-driven security,” IEEE Transactions on Services Computing, vol. 14, no. 6, pp. 2055-2072, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSC.2019.2907247.
A. T. Sahlol, D. Yousri, A. A. Ewees, M. A. Al-qaness, R. Damasevicius, and M. A. Elaziz, “Covid-19 image classification using deep features and fractional-order Marine Predators algorithm,” Scientific Reports, vol. 10, no. 1, article 15364, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-71294-2.
I. H. Sarker, “Deep learning: A comprehensive overview on techniques, taxonomy, applications and research directions,” SN Computer Science, vol. 2, no. 6, article 420, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42979-021-00815-1.
M. Sarwar, G. Abbas, R. Talib, M. Younas, and M. Sarwar, “Darkdetect: darknet traffic detection and categorization using modified convolution-long short-term memory,” IEEE Access, vol. 9, pp. 113705-113713, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3105000.
M. A. Khan, K. Javed, S. A. Khan, and others, “Human action recognition using fusion of multiview and deep features: an application to video surveillance,” Multimedia Tools and Applications, vol. 83, pp. 14885–14911, 2024, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11042-020-08806-9
C. A. S. Murty, H. Rana, R. Verma, R. Pathak, and P. H. Rughani, “Building an AI/ML Based Classification Framework for Dark Web Text Data,” in Proceedings of International Conference on Computing and Communication Networks, A. K. Bashir, G. Fortino, A. Khanna, and D. Gupta, Eds., Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems, vol. 394, Singapore: Springer, 2022, pp. 93–111. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0604-6_9
A. Selim, S. Kamel, G. Murtaza, and F. Jurado, “"Optimal placement of DGS in distribution system using an improved Harris Hawks optimizer based on single- and multi-objective approaches,” IEEE Access, vol. 8, pp. 52815-52829, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2020.2980245.
F. Soro, M. Allegretta, M. Mellia, I. Drago, and L. Bertholdo, “Sensing the noise: uncovering communities in darknet traffic,” Proceedings of the 2020 Mediterranean Communication and Computer Networking Conference (MedComNet), Arona, Italy, 2020, pp. 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1109/MedComNet49392.2020.9191555.
P. Wang, E. Fan, and P. Wang, “Comparative analysis of image classification algorithms based on traditional machine learning and deep learning,” Pattern Recognition Letters, vol. 141, pp. 61-67, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.patrec.2020.07.042.
Z. Wu, L. Zhang, and M. Yue, “Low-rate DOS attacks detection based on network multifractal,” IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 559-567, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1109/TDSC.2015.2443807.
Y. Zeng, H. Gu, W. Wei, and Y. Guo, “$deep-full-range$: A deep learning based network encrypted traffic classification and intrusion detection framework,” IEEE Access, vol. 7, pp. 45182-45190, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2908225.
C. Zhong, M. Wang, C. Dang, W. Ke, and S. Guo, “First-order reliability method based on Harris Hawks optimization for high-dimensional reliability analysis,” Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization, vol. 62, no. 4, pp. 1951-1968, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00158-020-02587-3.
M. Coutinho Marim, P. V. Ramos, A. B. Vieira, A. Galletta, M. Villari, R. M. de Oliveira, and E. F. Silva, “Darknet traffic detection and characterization with models based on decision trees and neural networks,” Intelligent Systems with Applications, vol. 18, p. 200199, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iswa.2023.200199.
L. Ye, Y. Yimeng, and C. Wei, “Analyzing public perception of educational books via text mining of online reviews,” Procedia Computer Science, vol. 221, pp. 617-625, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2023.08.030.
M. Bachmann, J. Beermann, T. Brey, H. J. de Boer, J. Dannheim, B. Edvardsen, P. G. Ericson, K. C. Holston, V. A. Johansson, P. Kloss, R. Konijnenberg, K. J. Osborn, P. Pappalardo, P. H. Pehlke, D. Piepenburg, T. H. Struck, P. Sundberg, S. S. Markussen, K. Teschke, and M. P. Vanhove, “The role of systematics for understanding ecosystem functions: Proceedings of the zoologica scripta symposium, Oslo, Norway, 25 August 2022,” Zoologica Scripta, vol. 52, no. 3, pp. 187-214, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1111/zsc.12593.
J. Ahmed, H. H. Gharakheili, C. Russell, and V. Sivaraman, “Automatic detection of DGA-enabled malware using SDN and traffic behavioral modeling,” IEEE Transactions on Network Science and Engineering, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 2922-2939, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1109/TNSE.2022.3173591.
J. Jaafari, S. Douzi, K. Douzi, and B. Hssina, “The impact of ensemble learning on surgical tools classification during laparoscopic cholecystectomy,” Journal of Big Data, vol. 9, no. 1, article 49, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40537-022-00602-6.
F. Pouromran, Y. Lin, and S. Kamarthi, “Personalized deep BI-LSTM RNN based model for pain intensity classification using EDA Signal,” Sensors, vol. 22, no. 21, p. 8087, 2022. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22218087.
A. Kaveh and Y. Gholipour, “Prediction of strength for concrete specimens using artificial neural network,” Asian Journal of Civil Engineering, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 1-13, 1998.
A. Kaveh, Y. Gholipour, and H. Rahami, “Optimal design of transmission towers using genetic algorithm and neural networks,” International Journal of Space Structures, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 1-19, 2008. https://doi.org/10.1260/026635108785342073.
A. Kaveh and N. Khavaninzadeh, “Efficient training of two ANNs using four meta-heuristic algorithms for predicting the FRP strength,” Structures, vol. 52, pp. 256-272, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2023.03.178.
M. Koc, Ö. Ekmekcioğlu, and A. P. Gurgun, “Developing a national data-driven construction safety management framework with interpretable fatal accident prediction,” Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, vol. 149, no. 4, p. 04023010, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1061/JCEMD4.COENG-12848.
M. Hasan Ghodusinejad, A. Ghodrati, R. Zahedi, and H. Yousefi, “Multi-criteria modeling and assessment of PV system performance in different climate areas of Iran,” Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, vol. 53, p. 102520, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2022.102520.
S. Karimzadeh, M. Ghasemi, M. Matsuoka, K. Yagi, and A. Banihashemi, “Experimental investigation and numerical simulation of strain-induced crystallization in glassy polymers during uniaxial tensile loading,” International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, vol. 108, pp. 169-181, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2016.02.012.
H. Jolani and A. Kaveh, “Application of modified teaching-learning algorithm in civil engineering optimization problems,” Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. 352, no. 11, pp. 4458-4473, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfranklin.2015.08.012.
M. M. Islam, M. R. Rahman, and A. Kaveh, “Performance analysis of back-propagation neural networks in predicting compressive strength of high-performance concrete incorporating metakaolin,” Advances in Engineering Software, vol. 55, pp. 19-29, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advengsoft.2012.12.010.
H. M. Balaha and A. E. S. Hassan, “Skin cancer diagnosis based on deep transfer learning and sparrow search algorithm,” Neural Computing and Applications, vol. 35, no. 1, 2023, pp. 815-853. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00521-022-07762-9.
B. A. Taha, Y. A. Mashhadany, A. H. Al-Jumaily, M. S. D. B. Zan, and N. Arsad, “SARS-CoV-2 morphometry analysis and prediction of real virus levels based on full recurrent neural network using TEM images,” Viruses, vol. 14, no. 11, pp. 2386, 2022. https://doi.org/10.3390/v14112386.
K. Koc, Ö. Ekmekcioğlu, and A. P. Gurgun, “Developing a national data-driven construction safety management framework with interpretable fatal accident prediction,” Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, vol. 149, no. 4, p. 04023010, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1061/JCEMD4.COENG-12848.
M. C. Marim, P. V. B. Ramos, A. B. Vieira, A. Galletta, M. Villari, R. M. de Oliveira, and E. F. Silva, “Darknet traffic detection and characterization with models based on decision trees and neural networks,” Intelligent Systems with Applications, vol. 18, p. 200199, 2023, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iswa.2023.200199.
S. Karimzadeh, M. Ghasemi, M. Matsuoka, K. Yagi, and A. C. Zulfikar, “A deep learning model for road damage detection after an earthquake based on synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and field datasets,” IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing, vol. 15, pp. 5753-5765, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1109/JSTARS.2022.3189875.
M. Lübbering, M. Gebauer, R. Ramamurthy, C. Bauckhage, and R. Sifa, “Bounding open space risk with decoupling autoencoders in open set recognition,” International Journal of Data Science and Analytics, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 351-373, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41060-022-00342-z.
S. Liu, L. Liu, E. Kozan, P. Corry, M. Masoud, and X. Li, “Machine learning for open-pit mining: A systematic review,” Available at SSRN 4540535.
M. Al-Fayoumi, M. Al-Fawa'reh, and S. Nashwan, “VPN and Non-VPN network traffic classification using time-related features,” Computers, Materials & Continua, vol. 72, no. 2, pp. 3091-3111, 2022. https://doi.org/10.32604/cmc.2022.025103.
A. Ishtaiwi, J. Petra, A. Ali, A. Al-Qerem, Y. Alsmadi, A. Aldweesh, M. Alauthman, O. Alzubi, S. Nashwan, A. Ramadan, and M. Al-Zghoul, “Impact of data-augmentation on brain tumor detection using different YOLO versions models,” International Arab Journal of Information Technology, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 466–482, 2024. https://doi.org/10.34028/iajit/21/3/10.
A. Al-Qerem, A. M. Ali, I. Jebreen, A. Nabot, S. Nashwan, A. Aldweesh, and M. Alzgol, “Enhancing stroke prediction using generative adversarial networks for intelligent medical care,” International Journal of Crowd Science, 2024. [Online]. Available at: https://www.sciopen.com/article/10.26599/IJCS.2023.9100034.
A. Al-Qerem, A. M. Ali, S. Nashwan, M. Alauthman, A. Hamarsheh, A. Nabot, and I. Jibreen, “Transactional services for concurrent mobile agents over edge/cloud computing-assisted social Internet of Things,” ACM Journal of Data and Information Quality, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 1–20, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1145/3603714.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
International Journal of Computing is an open access journal. Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:• Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
• Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
• Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work.